This is a guide to some standard grammatical conventions in the use of English, intended to help you avoid some of the most common errors made by students. Some of the conventions are controversial and may be ignored or altered for reasons of styles. Unless you are very confident, however, you should follow these conventions. A more detailed discussion of these issues can be found in the books listed at the end of this guide.
The subject of the sentence, which names who or what the sentence is about, includes the simple subject and all of the words associated with it.
The word historian is the simple subject, while The historian is the complete subject.
The predicate, which expresses action or being, includes the verb and all of the words associated with it.
example: The students discussed the new material.
The word discussed is the verb, while discussed the new material is the complete predicate.
A phrase is a group of words that doesn't have a subject and a verb.
example: into the woods
A clause is a group of words containing both a subject and a verb.
example: when the campers went into the woods
The subject of the clause is campers and the verb is went. The word when is a signal of dependence. It tells you that what you have here is a dependent clause.
A fragment is anything written as a sentence that is less than a complete sentence. Remember that a sentence must have at least one independent clause. Most fragment errors occur when:
a) A dependent clause is written as if it were a sentence.
example (wrong): While the doctor examined the results.
Here, the signal word While tells you that this is dependent clause and not a proper sentence. To make it complete you could add "the patient waited" so that the sentence read "While the doctor examined the results, the patient waited."
b) A verbal has been confused with a proper verb. Verbals are words formed, but they are not verbs. The three kinds of verbals are: infinitives (to + verb), gerunds (verb + ing), and participles (verb + ing, verb + ed; or having + past tense).
example: Hoping that the movie was not sold out.
example: Having waited in line for so long.
There are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent clauses.
An independent clause can stand alone as a complete sentence. In fact, the minimum requirement of a sentence is one independent clause.
example: The baby cried.
A dependent clause cannot be a complete sentence. It has the same grammatical function as a single word, whether it be adverb, adjective, or noun.
There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adverb, adjective, and noun.
Adverb clauses can modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They begin with signals of dependence called subordinate conjunctions, words such as because, unless, since, as, when, where, if, although and before.
example: adverb clause modifying a verb: The patient waited while the doctor examined the results.
example: adverb clause modifying an adjective: Ice is an excellent muscle relaxant when it is applied correctly.
example: adverb clause modifying an adverb: The doctor recommended that the ice be applied regularly since the injury was severe.
Adjective clauses modify nouns or pronouns. They begin with relative pronouns, words like who, whose, whom, which, and that.
example: Professor Leung, whose office is at the end of the hall, teaches drama.
Noun clauses functions as nouns. They can either be the subject of sentence or the object of a verb or a preposition. The signals of dependence for noun clauses are words like that, whoever, whomever, whichever, who, what, how, why, where, and when..
example: noun clause functioning as the subject: That this book would be on the course list has always been guaranteed.
example: noun clause as object of the verb in the independent clause: The student wondered how she could get through the semester.
example: noun clauses as object of the preposition: I will throw the ball to whoever is in the right position.
Adjective and adverb clauses may be restrictive or non-restrictive. A restrictive clause is one that restricts or limits the meaning of the thing it modifies. A non-restrictive clause simply gives extra, non-essential information. NOTE: Non-restrictive clauses are set off on both sides; restrictive clauses are not set off.
The relative pronoun that introduces a restrictive clause while which introduces a non-restrictive clause.
example: (restrictive adjective clause): The courses that are prerequisites have the largest enrolment.
This clause restricts the meaning of the sentence since only the courses that are prerequisites have the largest enrolment.
example: (non-restrictive adjective clause): These courses, which are usually survey courses, cover a lot of material.
The main idea is that the courses cover a lot of material; the information given in the adjective clause is non-essential.
Independent clauses can be joined in three ways:
Run-on and comma splice errors result from the failure to join independent clauses correctly.
A run-on sentence (also called a fused sentence) is one in which two or more independent clauses have been run together with no punctuation.
example (wrong): The trip was very expensive it was a cruise.
example (right): The trip was very expensive. It was a cruise.
The trip was very expensive; it was a cruise.
Because it was a cruise, the trip was very expensive.
A comma splice (also called a comma fault) results wen two independent causes have been spliced together with only a comma. Sometimes a coordinating conjunction has been omitted. Sometimes a comma -- instead of semi-colon -- has been used with a conjunctive adverb.
example (wrong): Sally's degree is in history, Trevor's is in philosophy.
example (right): Sally's degree is in history, while Trevor's is in philosophy.
example (right): Sally's degree is in history; Trevor's, however, is in philosophy.
Comma
There are several conventions for comma usage. The following are the most commonly used.
The comma and construction is used to join independent clauses. The conjunctions that can be used to join independent clauses are and, but, or, nor, so, for, and yet. Don't forget the comma.
example: The research I did in the library was time-consuming, but it was very helpful.
example: My sister always wanted that compact disc, so I bought it for her.
A comma should go between coordinate adjectives. Adjectives that are coordinate (equal in value) must be separated by commas.
example: Montreal is an interesting, unique city.
Commas can be used to set off elements in sentences whether they be words, phrases, or clauses. The element must be set off on both sides by a pair of commas. Dependent clauses, appositives, and participial phrases are only set off when they are non-restrictive (i.e. when they are not essential to the meaning of the sentence.)
example: My uncle, Kalib, works in the bank.
example: Tom King's newest book, the one I really want to read, is available now.
Introductory phrases are often set off.
example: In addition, we want you to review the material.
example: Before you leave town, be sure to close your bank account.
Commas also go in between items in a series. There are, however, two accepted conventions that you can follow for the second last item in the series and the "and" that follows it. You may either place a comma between the second last item and the "and" or not.
example: Your writing style is clear, concise, and easy to read.
example: Your writing style is clear, concise and easy to read.
The following is an error in usage:
An intrusive comma is one which intrudes or places a barrier between two things that should not be separated.
example: (wrong: a comma separating the subject and the verb): The volunteers enthusiasm for the event, insured its success.
Correct: The volunteers' enthusiasm for the event ensured its success.
example: (wrong: a comma separating the verb and the object): The chair stated at the meeting, that she appreciated their hard work.
Correct: The chair stated at the meeting that she appreciated their hard work.
example: (wrong: a comma inserted between the last adjective in a series and the noun it modifies): Those students are dedicated, hard-working, individuals.
Correct: Those students are dedicated, hard-working individuals.
example: (wrong: a comma between a pair of words joined by a coordinating conjunction):
The departments of English, and French are in the same building.
The departments of English, and French are in the same building.
There are only two possible uses of the semi-colon.
Semi-colons join independent clauses -- with or without a conjunctive adverb. Conjunctive adverbs are words like however, furthermore, therefore, moreover, & indeed.
example: with conjunctive adverb: I wanted to take a French course; however, the one I wanted was not offered.
example: without conjunctive adverb: Teresa continued on to graduate school; Dana got a full-time job.
Semi-colons can also be used to separate internally punctuated elements in a series.
example: The main characters in The Robber Bride are Tony, the historian; Roz, the businesswoman; Charis, the store clerk; and Zenia.
A colon is used when the first part of sentence introduces or announces the second part. The colon must be preceded by an independent clause. What follows it, however, may be an independent clause, a phrase, a list, or a quotation.
example: One thought kept her going: she had to reach the campsite before nightfall.
example: The successful applicants were the following: Chakravorty from Fine Art, Harper from History, and Bissonette from Drama.
NOTE: Notice that you can't say "The successful applicants were: Chakravorty..." because you must have a complete sentence -- an independent clause -- before the colon.
Apostrophes are used in three ways:
1. The apostrophe is used to indicate possession.
example: Fatima's academic performance was recognized in her department.
NOTE: You cannot use the apostrophe to indicate possession if the word is already in the possessive form.
example (wrong): That bicycle is her's.
The word hers is a possessive pronoun. Other possessive pronouns that might cause problems are yours, ours, theirs, and its.
Use 's to make a singular noun possessive.
example: The pitcher's record was the best in the league.
Even if the singular noun ends in "s," it is normally made possessive by adding 's.
example: Paulette Jiles's poetry is very moving.
Most plural nouns end in s or es. You make these plural nouns possessive by adding just the apostrophe.
example: The election results reflect the citizens' opinion.
Nouns that form the plural in another way are made possessive by adding 's.
example: The Women's Resource Centre is in UC.
2. The apostrophe is also used to indicate a contraction (i.e. that one or more letters have been left out).
example: They'll be travelling to Portugal to see their grandmother.
Here, the apostrophe takes the place of "wi" in "will."
NOTE: Don't confuse its (possessive form of "it") and it's (contraction of "it is").
example: It's unlikely that your flight will be delayed.
The apostrophe replaces the "i" in "is."
3. The apostrophe can form the plural in a few rare cases.
Numbers mentioned as numbers, letters mentioned as letters, and words mentioned as words, as well as abbreviations are often pluralized by adding an apostrophe.
example: Tasha loves music from the 20's and 30's.
example: "Mississippi" is spelled with four s's, four i's, and two p's.
example: The professor's lecture contained many nervous "um's" and "uh's."
Do not make the mistake of thinking that proper nouns can be made plural by adding the apostrophe.
example (wrong): The Singh's are my neighbours.
example (correct): The Singhs are my neighbours.
A verb must agree with its subject in both person and number.
1. Agreement in person
example: Jean Pierre coaches the soccer team and his students play on the team. Jean Pierre and coaches are both third person singular, while students and play are both third person plural.
2. Agreement in number
Always take the time to identify the subject of each verb. Most errors in agreement occur when the subject and verb are far apart from one another.
Here are a few cases where you might have some difficulty:
a. When something comes between the subject and the verb:
example: A herd of cows was grazing in the field.
The subject here is herd (not cows); it requires a singular verb (was).
b. When the subject is compound
Most compound subjects are joined by the conjunction "and." They are easily recognizable as plural subjects.
example: The tenant and the landlord were at odds.
NOTE: Make sure that both parts of the compound subject are indeed different things.
example: The architect and builder was Christopher Wren.
Here, both architect and builder refer to the same person, so the verb is singular (was).
example: Her creativity and intelligence make her an excellent writer.
Here, because creativity and intelligence are two different things, you need a plural verb (make).
Phrases like as well as, together with, and along with DO NOT form compound subjects and DO NOT take plural verbs.
example: The coach, along with the manager and the owner, decides who should be traded.
The subject is coach, so you need the singular verb (decides).
If a compound subject is preceded by each or every, the verb is singular.
example: In my fruit salad, every fruit in season is used.
When a compound subject is joined by or or nor, and both parts of the subject are singular, the verb should also be singular. If both parts are plural, the verb should be plural.
example: Either the cord or the electrical outlet is faulty.
example: Neither the children nor the parents like that daycare centre.
Sometimes the compound subject is understood but not stated. If this is the case, decide what the implied subject is and then follow the appropriate rule.
example: Either [a glass of ginger ale or a glass of lemonade] is fine.
Here, because the implied subjects are both singular, you would use a singular verb.
If one half of the compound subject is singular and the other half is plural, make the verb agree with the part closest to the verb.
example: Because they all enjoy it so much, neither the teacher nor the students care if the class goes longer than the allotted time.
Because students is closed to the verb, you need the plural verb.
c. Indefinite pronouns
Most indefinite pronouns are singular and take singular verbs. Words like another, anybody, everyone, everything, no one, each, either, neither & someone are SINGULAR.
example: Because no one is expecting a visitor, everyone is surprised by the knock on the door.
NOTE: "None" is a singular pronoun.
example: None of the singers has been formally trained.
Some indefinite pronouns -- words like all, some, any & most -- can vary in number. In general, they are singular if the word to which they refer is singular, and plural if the word to which they refer is plural.
example: All of the vegetables at the market were fresh.
example: All of the cheese was on sale.
d. Subject following the verb
Be especially careful to identify the subject if it is not in its usual position.
example: Wandering down the dark streets were the lost children.
The subject here is children, so you need the plural were.
example: There are over a hundred students enroled in that course.
The subject here is students (not "There" -- it is never the subject of a sentence), so the plural verb are is correct.
e. The predicate noun (with linking verbs)
The predicate noun is the noun in the predicate that is linked to the subject by a linking verb, usually some form of the verb to be.
The verb agrees with its subject, not with its predicate noun.
example: Marco's favourite snack is raisins.
The subject is snack (not raisins).
f. Collective nouns
Collective nouns -- like faculty, audience, and committee -- refer to groups and may be either singular or plural. A collective noun is singular if it is considered as a whole; it is plural if it is considered in terms of its individual parts.
example: The committee has decided to postpone voting on this issue.
Here, the committee as a whole decided, so the noun is singular and requires a singular verb.
example: A number of bands were playing at the club that night.
Here, the subject is the collective noun number. Because the sense is plural (bands clarifies this) you use the plural verb.
g. Relative pronouns
To determine whether a relative pronoun (who, which, that) is singular or plural, identify the antecedent (the noun to which the relative pronoun refers). Then make the verb agree with the pronoun.
example: Terry's ability to make people feel comfortable, which comes naturally to her, makes her an excellent counsellor.
Here, the antecedent of the relative pronoun which is ability, a singular noun. Because which is singular, the verb in the dependent clause is also singular: comes.
example: She is one of the researchers who work in the library.
The subject of the dependent clause is who, and its antecedent is researchers; therefore who is plural and takes the plural verb work.
Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender and in number.
1. Agreement in gender
It is no longer acceptable to use the third person masculine pronoun (he) when the gender of a noun is unspecified.
example (wrong): A politician should be sensitive to the will of his constituents.
Do not avoid the issue of gender by switching to the plural pronoun.
example (wrong): A politician should be sensitive to the will of their constituents. (This produces an error in number: politician is singular; their is plural.
Both of these problems can be handled in a number of ways.
a. Change everything to the plural.
example: Politicians should be sensitive to the will of their constituents.
b. Use gender inclusive constructions.
example: A politician should be sensitive to the will of her or his constituents.
c. Rewrite the sentence to avoid using a pronoun.
example: Politicians should be sensitive to the wills of constituents.
2. Agree in number
When two nouns are joined by or or nor, the pronoun (like the verb) agrees with the noun that is closest to it.
example: Neither the Minister nor his aides seem confident of their answers.
Watch out for the prepositional phrases that follow the subject. Be sure you've got the right antecedent for the pronoun.
example: The circle of stones at Stonehenge continues to conceal its true function.
The antecedent is circle, not stones.
Remember that collective nouns can be singular or plural according to context.
example: The jury finally made its decision.
Most indefinite pronouns (words like everyone) are singular, but some (words like any or some) are variable. They are either singular or plural, according to the number of the noun to which they refer.
example: Some of the paint is chipped.
example: Some of the puzzle pieces are missing.
The number of a relative pronoun (who, that, which) depends on the number of its antecedent.
example: The art gallery has a collection of early Canadian paintings, which have a particular artistic style.
The antecedent of which is paintings, so the plural verb have is required.
NOTE: The pronoun everyone is singular, and so the necessary possessive pronoun will be her or his, and not their.
example: Everyone should leave her or his notebook at the front during the exam.
Place a modifier as close as possible to the thing it modifies.
Compare these sentences and notice how the meaning changes when the modifier only is moved.
Only my friend plays tennis.
My only friend plays tennis.
My friend only plays tennis. (She doesn't teach it, for example).
My friend plays only tennis.
A shift in placement will not always produce a shift in meaning, but it may produce confusion.
A squinting modifier is particularly confusing. This error occurs when a modifier is placed between two things, either of which it could logically modify.
example: (squinting modifier): The tenor said in the evening he would sing at the concert.
The prepositional phrase in the evening could modify said, telling you when the tenor made the announcement; or it could modify sing, telling you when he would sing. Take the modifier out of the middle.
example (corrected): The tenor said that he would sing at the concert in the evening.
example (corrected): In the evening, the tenor said he would sing at the concert.
A dangling modifier is a modifier that doesn't have anything to modify or seems to modify the wrong thing.
A common type of dangling modifier is the dangling participle. To eliminate a dangling participle you can rearrange the words in your sentence so that the modifier is obviously modifying the right word or rephrase your sentence to make your meaning clear and logical.
example (wrong): Touching her belly, the baby kicked.
The phrase touching her belly hooks onto the first noun and modifies it. Here, the first noun is baby -- and that's obviously wrong.
example (corrected): Touching her belly, I felt the baby kick.
example (corrected): While I was touching her belly, the baby kicked.
Here are several other examples of dangling modifiers.
example (wrong): By examining the facts, a conclusion can be reached.
The "conclusion" cannot "examine the facts."
example (wrong): To understand the complexity of the plot, the novel must be read more than once.
The "novel" does not "understand."
example (wrong): Once at obedience school, dogs' behaviour has to change.
The "behaviour" is not at "obedience school."
example (wrong): A relentless stereotype, the sitcom has a mother who is a housewife.
The "sitcom" is not a "stereotype."
It is important to avoid discriminatory use of language in writing. You should avoid the use of words that carry racist or sexist overtones. You should also try to use gender inclusive vocabulary and sentence structure.
Use "man" when you are referring to a male human being; if you are referring to people of both sexes use gender-neutral words like "human," "person," or "individual" instead.
example: The man who wrote that article is a famous sculptor.
example: Humankind is responsible for much of the environmental damage that has occurred in the last century.
NOTE: There are many words that assume a male or female identity. Many of these have been altered so that they are gender neutral: mail man for example, has become mail carrier or postal worker; chairman has become chair; stewardess has become flight attendant. You might want to check a book like Diana Hackers A Canadian Writer's Manual for a more complete list.)
Avoid using masculine pronouns when referring to people of both sexes.
example (wrong): Everyone should take his cup to the counter.
The masculine pronoun here is misleading since some of the people being referred to may well be female. Either replace "his" with "his or her," recast the sentence in the plural, or change the structure of the sentence to avoid pronouns entirely.
example: Everyone should take his or her cup to the counter.
example: All of us should take our cups to the counter.
example: Cups should be taken to the counter.
Avoid trying to solve the problem simply by replacing "his" with "their"; this only gets you into another difficulty: inconsistency in number. In general, if you are in doubt, rephrase the sentence to eliminate the problem.
Sexual and gender harassment and racism can occur in print. For more information on this, please check the Sexual and Gender Harassment Policy and Procedure and the soon-to-be-formalized Anti-Racism and Race Relations Policy.
Plagiarism is an offence and constitutes a serious form of academic misconduct. Plagiarism is form of impersonation, defined in the broadest sense of misrepresenting the work of others as one's own. As indicated in the Undergraduate and Graduate Calendars, plagiarism can be understood as: the act of copying, reproducing, or paraphrasing significant portions of someone else's published or unpublished material, and representing these as one's own thinking by not acknowledging the appropriate source or by failure to use the appropriate quotation marks. Students have the responsibility to learn and use the conventions of documentation, and, if in any doubt, are encouraged to consult with the instructor of the course or with the Department Chair or Director for clarification. There are a number of different conventions for citation; your instructors should tell you which ones they prefer you to use. The most common style guides are the MLA Style Manual and the Chicago Manual of Style.
If you are in doubt about whether or not to cite something, cite it. To "cite" means that you acknowledge the source from which you have received your information, whether you have quoted directly from the original text, paraphrased the original, or summarized the author's ideas.
If found guilty of plagiarism a student may, depending on the assessment of the university, be required to submit a new piece of work; receive a deduction or a zero in the exam, assignment, or course; be given a warning of suspension; receive a suspension for one or two years; or be expelled from the university. For Further Reference
Buckley, Joanne. Fit to Print. Toronto: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991.
Broadview Book of Common Errors in English. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press, 1988.
Hodges, John C., Mary Whitten, Judy Brown, and Jane Flich, eds. Harbrace College Handbook for Canadian Writers. Toronto: Harcourt Brace and Co, 1994.
Hacker, Diana. A Canadian Writer's Reference. Scarborough: Nelson, 1990.
Northey, Margot. Making Sense: A Student's Guide to Writing and Style. Toronto: Oxford UP, 1983.